His model is based on the idea that we can learn by observing others. Bandura’s ideas are very similar to those put forward by Donald Campbell who uses six "acquired behavioral dispositions" which we use to learn and chose options over others (Social Learning 1). The similarity of the two theories lies in Bandura’s description of Campbell’s 3^rd and 4^th dispositions. Campbell describes them as 3-Observation of another’s response to the object and 4-Modeling. "He (Bandura) uses the term modeling to describe Campbell’s two midrange processes of response acquisition (observation of another’s response and modeling),…(Social Learning 2).

There are four necessary stages that an observer goes through during the process of Social Learning Theory:

Attentional processes refers to the attention the observer gives to the major aspects of the modeled behavior. Retention processes refer to what the observer remembers about the modeled behavior. Production processes is the practice (either physically or mentally) of the modeled behavior and incorporating it into the observers own life situations. Finally, motivational processes refer to the factors that an observer uses to determine if the results of the modeled behavior are positive or negative (Peter and Olson, pp. 332-3). These four processes are used by the observer to either accept or reject the modeled behavior as their own. In both cases the observer learns through the modeled behavior. This is called vicarious learning. It is important to note that in vicarious learning, learning occurs without any reinforcement. Rewards are gained indirectly and this becomes the reinforcement of the behavior for the observer. They see that the modeled behavior is rewarded and imagine themselves in the exact situation with the same outcome. This is called vicarious reinforcement (Fernald, p. 468).

In the advertising field, modeling can be used to show consumers how to use products and at the same time show the product in the ideal setting for the observer. This allows the observer to form positive associations about the product through its proper use. For example using Arm & Hammer baking soda to deodorize a closet. After the action is shown, the response of the model is positive in that the closet smells better. Saturn uses modeling to help consumers develop appropriate evaluative criteria in selecting a car (e.g., a woman is shown browsing in a dealership where a Saturn employee listens to her needs.) Modeling is also used to bring attention to ads. For example, consider the story line of Taster’s Choice where the flirtatious interlude between neighbors became an advertising soap opera and observers wanted to know what was going to happen in the next commercial. Public service announcements use modeling in advertising to inhibit undesired responses. When a young girl is observed from across the room by a young man she invites him to come over and talk to her with a look. As he starts to walk over she takes a drag of a cigarette and the young man immediately turns away. To depict positive consequences for using the product, advertisers have used various situations like the ad for Volkswagen. It shows a couple driving down the road in their Passat while the rest of the world carries on to the beat of the music on the car stereo. The depiction here is that the rest of the world is in synchronicity when you are driving in a Volkswagen.

Other examples of vicarious learning have been effectively used by such companies as Soloflex to demonstrate exercise equipment through free videotapes sent to interested consumers. They have also begun to use infomercials where the workout is actually demonstrated step by step over a period of time. In these examples a person works out on the machine while a narrator explains the use of the machine and the benefits that will be gained for the person who engages in the exercises.

In the magazine, Vanity Fair (picture 1 attached) there is an advertisement for a women’s cologne, clinique happy. In it we see a group of three young people having a good time in swimsuits. There is a guy and a girl carrying another girl in their arms cradled while they all laugh and smile. The add reads, "c’mon get happy." By observing them at play, having a great time, we are supposed to watch and envy them, and at the same time imagine ourselves in their places. The add shows these people in a positive attractive situation where they frolic carelessly and enjoy each other’s company. Why not? We should all have the opportunity to dawn our swimsuits at one point or another, but the ad seems to suggest that in order for us to be truly happy we must wear the fragrance happy that way we can be just as care free as they are. At least that is what the advertisement would have us believe from observing the three of them engaged in this behavior. It is the power of associating oneself to the acts that attract us to become interested in the product itself.

Another advertisement in Vanity Fair (picture 2 attached) suggests the idea of romance and attractiveness through the use of clothing. Perry Ellis, a men’s clothing designer has created a scene where a young woman caresses a young man’s tie while they sit pouting by a wall. Through their subtle and yet obvious actions we are allowed to witness their behavior entice us into associating ourselves into their positions. For the women, the attraction to the man is brought on by her actions of caressing his tie. He looks good in his clothes. For men, the thought of substituting themselves into his position and believing that they can look as good as he does is the point of the advertisement. The idea is simple, he is meant to be attractive in the clothing and we are supposed to define ourselves as either character by watching their interactions. Vicarious Learning takes place because men will associate and learn that looking good in Perry Ellis clothing will enable them to attain the affection of a beautiful woman.

Muscle and Fitness magazine hosts numerous advertisements which claim to work wonders on the human body in regards to health and fitness. The most common of ads is the testimonial where an individual goes through a drastic change in a matter of time using the product. The pictures of Dave Davis, before and after (picture 3 attached), are a good example of how Vicarious Learning can take place through observing the results of his changes after using the product Xenadrine RFA-1 for a period of time. What the observer learns is that there are positive results from using the product. He or she sees that Dave Davis is successful with his fat-loss program and the attraction then is that the observer can be just as successful using this product.

The following list contains web sites of relevance to the topic of Vicarious Learning.

The following questions will test your understanding of the material presented. For each question chose one option that best answers the question. (After completing the test, scroll down to check your answers.)

1.    Which of the following is a true statement?

1. Vicarious learning requires that the model be observed in person.
2. Vicarious learning requires that the model be in act of demonstrating the behavior.
3. Both are true.
4. Neither is true.

2.    Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory is based on:

1. the idea that we can learn by trial and error.
2. the idea that we can learn by observing others.
3. the idea that we can learn through reinforcement.
4. None of the above.

3.    Which of the following is NOT a necessary stage of the Social Learning Theory?

1. Retention
2. Motivational
3. Attentional
4. Comprehensional

4.    What consequence(s) may be present in order for Vicarious Learning to take place?

1. Positive consequences
2. Negative consequences
3. Both
4. Neither

5.    The Taster’s Choice commercials are an example of using vicarious learning to:

1. to get consumers to use a product correctly.
2. to get consumers to pay more attention to ads.
3. to depict positive consequences for using the product.
4. to inhibit undesired responses.

(scroll down for answers)

Answer Key: 1-c, 2-b, 3-d, 4-c, 5-b

Bandura, Albert. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986.

Clinque Happy. Vanity Fair. May 1999: 57-58.

Drea, John T., D.B.A., Lecture. Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL, 25 Mar. 1999.

Fernald, Dodge. Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997.

Perry Ellis. Vanity Fair. May 1999: 69.

Peter, J. Paul, and Jerry C. Olson. Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1993.

"Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura." (Accessed 11 Apr. 99) Online: http://paedpsych.jk.uni-linz.ac.at:4711/LEHRTEXTE/Bandura.html 20 Apr. 99.