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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT by Kylan Harasimowicz Introduction In today’s competitive market there are many different companies all competing with each other for the consumer’s almighty dollar. Each tries to outdo each other and differentiate their product from competitors. In this competitive arena where many products are homogenous, it is necessary for a company to find a way to secure a segment of the market that is not controlled by competitors. There are numerous strategies that a company can employ to achieve success in its given market. For example, it can try to develop an efficient product that is superior in quality in comparison to the rest. It can incorporate classical conditioning, in an attempt to motivate the consumer to associate a pleasurable feeling or emotion with the company’s product. It can also employ operant conditioning through the use of free samples or other rewards. A related and effective method that a company can use to attract consumers to its product is through the use of the schedules of reinforcement. The use of reinforcement can be very beneficial to a company’s success. If used properly, reinforcement can provide the stimulus to motivate consumers to buy a company’s product. The use of reinforcement can also offer the additional benefit of developing a consistent buying pattern for a company’s product. Along with the positive affects it can have on the rate of learning and the resistance to extinction, it is easy to understand why so many companies use reinforcement as an integral part of their marketing strategies. This tutorial will
Basic Definition of Reinforcement Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy (Hawkins, Best, and Coney 1998) defines reinforcement as, "anything that increases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future" (p. 340). This definition gives a basic definition of reinforcement. However, when trying to fully understand the concept of reinforcement, it becomes necessary to look at reinforcement in a much deeper context. There are various types and schedules of reinforcement that must be studied in order to obtain an efficient understanding of reinforcement. To begin with, reinforcement is centered on three basic arenas or types. These are
These types of reinforcement play a key role in the development of desired responses to selected stimuli. These schedules are like a backbone to the entire reinforcement process, so it is easy to understand why using them properly is vital to any reinforcement process. These types of reinforcements work directly with and have a direct effect on behavior and its analysis. This is due to the fact that individual’s behavior can be directly affected by the type of reinforcement used. Since reinforcement has such a strong affect on individual’s behavior, its influence on individual’s behavior is something that has been studied by many leading scientists. When dealing with reinforcement it is very important to understand that the actual effect that the reinforcement has on behavior is not necessary to interpret the reinforcement. In the book, Schedules of Reinforcement we learn that this means that a desired response can be reinforced, "on the basis of the time which has elapsed since the preceding reinforcement" (Fester and Skinner, 2). Another factor that must be kept in mind is the "number of responses which have been emitted since the preceding reinforcement" (2). What this means is that the actual reinforcement which is used can not be the only factor considered when trying to develop a desired response. Types of Reinforcement Now that a basic understanding of what exactly reinforcement entails, hopefully the strong affect that it has on behavior is also apparent. As previously stated, it would not be right to view reinforcement as simply anything that increases the likelihood of the repetition of a desired response. Although this is a correct and "formal" definition, it is essential that an individual understand the different types of reinforcement, which are crucial to the repetition of a desired response. The book, The Introduction to Modern Behaviorism, informs us that the study of reinforcement can be dated back to B.F. Skinner. In Skinner's experiments on rats "he trained them to press a lever to receive a pellet of food and measured their rate of pressing, hence, their rate of eating, after various periods of food deprivation (Rachlin, 113). According to Hawkins, Best, and Coney, a postitive reinforcement "is a pleasant or desired consequence" (340). When attempting to understand what a positive reinforcement is, it is helpful to think of it at its simplest level. Reinforcement has already been defined as anything that increases the likelihood of a given response being repeated. When thinking of something as being positive, it is usually thought of as something that is good or enjoyable. Now, by putting the two definitions of reinforcement and positive together, it becomes easier to understand that, as the definition states, a positive reinforcement is anything that helps the repetition of a desired behavior in the future. A very basic, but appropriate, example of a positive reinforcement would be a high school student who wishes to be popular with a certain group of students. In order to be popular or look "cool", he/she buys a new sports car. By performing this action, the individual gains the group’s acceptance. Buying the car was a positive reinforcement, because it helped the individual gain a desired consequence, being popular. Another primary type of reinforcement is negative reinforcement. Hawkins, Best, and Coney define this as, "the removal or the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence"(340). When first seeing the word "negative", it is easy to understand how an individual may think that this type of reinforcement in unpleasant or undesired. The very opposite is true, because this type of reinforcement has more of a positive or desired result. This is due to the fact that it is helping to remove or stop an activity or situation, which is undesired by an individual. The previous car example can again be used for negative reinforcement, with a slight change to the situation. With this example, a high school student may be in a situation where he/she is being teased or picked on by a certain group. In order for the individual to avoid the unpleasant consequence of being teased, he/she buys a sports car. By buying the car, the group thinks differently of the individual and no longer teases him/her. Finally, there is the third dimension of reinforcement, punishment. Hawkins, Best, and Coney define this as, "any consequence that decreases the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the future" (340). As the definition states, punishment is the opposite of positive reinforcement. This reinforcement is rather direct and can be used in a variety of ways. Punishment can also be used in our car example. If the high school student fears that by not buying the sports car he/she will be teased or picked on and this causes him/her to actually buy the sports car, he/she is avoiding punishment. The individual does not want to receive the punishment of being teased or harassed, so he/she purchases the car in order to avoid being punished (teased). Schedules of Reinforcement Once an understanding of the different types of reinforcement has been established it becomes necessary to cover the schedules of reinforcement, which are used in coordination with the different types of reinforcement. These schedules have a direct affect on the rate and amount of response to a stimulus. To ensure maximum repetition of the desired response, it becomes necessary to select the appropriate schedule with correct type of reinforcement. An article in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, by Kennon Lattal and Nancy Neef, covered a study done by Morse and Kellener where schedules were labeled as the "amino acids of behavior" and that they "have been discussed as fundamental determinants of behavior" (214). Since schedules of reinforcement are so influential on individual’s behaviors, many studies have been done on the true affect of these schedules on behavior. In 1984, Zeiler conducted an experimental analysis on behavior and found that reinforcement can "serve as useful baselines for the study of other behavioral processes" (Lattal and Neef, 214). This finding stressed the importance of reinforcement and its channeling affect on different behavioral processes. The importance of reinforcement schedules and its powerful affect on behavior have also been directly or indirectly: embedded in most treatment programs" which show the strong affect these schedules can have on human behavior (214). The three main schedules I will cover are regular, irregular, and fixed-interval. First, there is a regular reinforcement schedule. What this type of reinforcement entails is giving the reinforcement every time a certain behavior occurs. This type of reinforcement is very beneficial to the learning process, because regular reinforcement increases the rate of learning. This increased rate of learning is due to the fact that the subject is motivated to learn since it is receiving reinforcement each time it learns something new. The subject realizes that in order for it to continue receiving the reinforcement it must continue the learning process. According to "Journal of Clinical Child Psychology", the use of regular or continuous reinforcement can be very beneficial to unrelated-word task skills of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Barber). The next type of reinforcement that can be used is an irregular reinforcement schedule. This type of reinforcement is when the reinforcement is distributed on a random basis. This occurs when an individual performs the desired response and does not receive the reinforcement each time the response or behavior is performed. This reinforcement is best used to help create a resistance to extinction. According to Howard Rachlin’s book, Introduction to Modern Behaviorism, "when a response has been constantly rewarded, extinction is usually much faster than when the same response has been rewarded only part of the time" (119). Finally, the third type of schedule used with reinforcement is fixed-interval. This occurs when an individual receives reinforcement after making a certain fixed number of responses. According to G.S. Reynolds’s book A Primer of Operant Conditioning, fixed-interval schedules "are difficult to find outside of the laboratory" (62). This helps to explain why fixed-interval reinforcement schedules are not as commonly used to increase the rate of learning or for resistance to extinction. Forster and Skinner inform us that extinction occurs after fixed-ratio due to the "increasingly longer periods of no responding" (57-58). Application to Marketing/Examples Now that an understanding of the different types of reinforcement and its main schedules has been established it is possible to relate the schedules of reinforcement to marketing practices. It is easy to understand why these schedules can be so important to marketing, due to reinforcement’s strong influence on people’s behavior. When you incorporate this idea with reinforcement’s affect on the rate of learning and extinction, the proper application of reinforcement can be a crucial aid in the marketing of a product. Hawkins, Best, and Coney inform us of the use of reinforcement for marketing products that are "designed to be used in public situations" (371). These are products such as clothing, furniture, and artwork, which are commonly displayed or seen when an individual is in a public setting. Reinforcement is so important in these situations, because the purchase of these products is usually made with anticipation, by the individual, of some sort of praise or admiration from the individual’s peers. Hawkins, Best, and Coney use the example of the need for reinforcement when purchasing keepsake diamonds. In this example, marketers are trying to create the idea that by purchasing a diamond an individual will be positively rewarded with joy and close ties with friends. This is shown in the advertising statements such as: "Enter a room and you are immediately surrounded by friends sharing your excitement" (371). Ronald Luskin showed another example of the importance of reinforcement in marketing in the Marketing News article. In his article, Luskin describes the high importance that reinforcement plays in order to "build strong brand sales" (13). On the Consumer Thought Process pyramid, reinforcement was between satisfaction and trail. What this exemplifies is the importance of reinforcement to consumers and their buying practices. In order for a product to be truly successful and profitable, it is necessary to incorporate some sort of reinforcement and schedule of reinforcement into the marketing strategy. Again, by using reinforcement, a sense of satisfaction can be developed in the consumer, which can then help build the strong brand sales that are desired by companies. Examples A prime example of a positive-irregular schedule of reinforcement would be products that offer "instant win" possibilities with the purchase of the product. With this type of reinforcement, the consumer can receive the positive reinforcement of winning a prize from buying the product. This is positive because the result, if winning, is usually something that is desired or pleasant. It is irregular because the consumer doesn’t win every time he/she purchases the product, so the reinforcement of winning is random. Examples of companies that use this schedule of reinforcement are Coke, with their twist and win cap, McDonalds, with their Monopoly instant win game, and Doritos, with their instant ticket winner games. An example of a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement would be when a food company, such as Subway, offers a program where consumers can receive free food after making a certain number of purchases. This is a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement because the consumer does not receive the reinforcement every time he/she makes a purchase, but he/she knows that after making the right amount of purchases he/she will receive the reinforcement (free food). This can be very beneficial to a company’s success, because it can help to develop a loyal customer base. The customers feel good and enjoy the reinforcement of free food and continue making food purchases from the store. Adidas uses a regular reinforcement schedule with the marketing of some of their hats. With every purchase of a hat, the consumer receives an Adidas sticker. This is regular reinforcement because the consumer knows that every time he/she purchases an Adidas hat, he/she will receive the sticker. The consumer gets the satisfaction of knowing that the desired reinforcement will be received every time the purchase is made. Regular reinforcement is also received from the Adidas shoes every time the buyer wears the shoes and his/her feet do not hurt. This tactic has been very beneficial to Adidas’s success and profitability.
Conclusion I hope that this paper has helped to show the importance that schedules of reinforcement can have the marketing of a company's products. It can be very difficult for a company to motivate the consumer to consider buying its product. Simply cutting the price of the product is not always the right answer, since this can lead to reduced profits. By incorporating the schedules of reinforcement, which were covered in this paper, a company can reduce many of their current marketing dilemmas. The power to influence a consumer’s behavior processes is a very powerful and profitable tool, and the schedules of reinforcement offer the potential for a company to be able to do this. Web Links Adidas- http://www.adidas.com/ Subway- http://subway.com/ Coke- http://www.coca-cola/home.html Doritos- http://www.doritos.com/
References Barber, Mary, Richard Milich, and Richard Welsh. "Effects of Reinforcement Schedule and Task Difficulty on the Performance of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered and Control Boys." Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 25 (1996): 66. Ferster, C.B. and B.F. Skinner. Schedules of Reinforcement. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc, 1957. Hawkins, Del, Roger Best, and Kenneth Coney. Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy, 7th Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Lattal, Kennon and Nancy Neef. "Recent Reinforcement-Schedule Research and Applied Behavior Analysis," Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29 (1996): 213-231. Luskin, Ronald. "To Build Strong Brand Sales, Trust the Power of the Pyramid." Marketing News 4 August 1997: 13. Posten, Robert. "Strategies for Marketing toward the Millennium." Advertising Age 8 December 1997: 28. Rachlin, Howard. Introduction to Modern Behaviorism. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1970. Reynolds, G.S. A Primer of Operant Conditioning. Atlanta: Scott, Foresman, and Company, 1968. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Regular, Irregular, and Fixed-Interval are examples of _________ of reinforcement.
2. An example of a company offering an instant win contest with the purchase of the company’s product is___________ reinforcement.
3. One of the first scientists to study reinforcement was __________.
4. _________ reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant or undesired consequence.
5. The use of free food through the purchase of a pre-determined amount of food is an an example of __________ reinforcement.
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Answers to Multiple Choice Questions
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