by Jessica Tabas

INTRODUCTION

Imagine that you are the Marketing Manager for a new line of clothing, and you are trying to promote the product to consumers in a way that will be successful in the market. Your product could be completely new, or it could be an established with possible low sales. So, how do you go about successfully marketing your product to the right consumers? One way is through the use of Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning, also known as Instrumental Learning, is defined as: a learning process by which the consequences of an operant response affects the likelihood that the response will occur in the future (Internet:C). In other words, Operant Conditioning is a Stimulus-Response pattern that when reinforced will condition the individual to respond to a desired behavior. Our behaviors are altered to be desirable or undesirable through reinforcements, punishments, and extinction.
Overall, operant conditioning is a voluntary response that precedes the stimulus and the reinforcement. Operant Conditioning has been applied in many situations, such as teaching, clinical settings, and programmed instruction (Internet:E). Two famous stream of research in this area have been developed by  B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike.

Edward Thorndike is best known for his "Law of Effect" (Internet:G). Thorndike made several wooden crates which required various combinations of latches, levers, strings and treadles to open them. A dog or cat was then put into one of the "puzzle boxes" to analyze the amount of time it would take either animal to escape (Internet:G). In this experiment, Thorndike wanted to find if animals learn their tasks through observation or imitation. Through many trials, the animals learned that with the proper positioning in the box (stimulus), they were able to be free of the box (reward). Thus, repetition of the reward would occur and the animals were able to strengthen their stimulus-response associations (Internet:G). Thorndike concluded that the animals learned to solve the "puzzle box", not through observation, but by certain actions made by chance. In full, Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect reads:

"Of several responses made to the same situation those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections to the situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond." (Internet:G)

During the 1940's-50's, B.F. Skinner resurrected the law of effect in more starkly behavioral terms and provided a technology which allowed sequences of behavior produced over a long time to be studied objectively (Internet:G). He believed that all behavior is caused, shared, and maintained by our consequences. With the invention of the Skinner Box, he was now able to train rats and pigeons to press a lever in order to obtain a food reward. The first step is to introduce and/or expose the animal to the food pellets. This will help the animals to learn that the pellets equal food, which also equals the reinforcement of hunger in the animals. The whole process of learning through the stimuli in the environment surrounding the rats may take a long period of time. In such experiments, the subject (rat) is able to generate a response (R, running around in the box, or pressing a lever). The experimentor chooses a response (pressing the lever) to pair with the unconditioned stimulus (US, food reward). After training the animals, they will show a conditioned response (CS, pressing the lever) even in the absence of the US (reward). The conclusion for Skinner was that the environment reacts to our behavior and either reinforces or eliminates that behavior. Consequently, the environment holds the key to understanding behavior. (Human Growth and Development,1999).

EXPLANATION

Skinner felt that the term, reinforcement was more desirable than the word reward.(Dacey,1999). A reinforcement is any stimuli that strengthens the desired response (Internet:B), such as, money, feeling of increased satisfaction, or maybe clothes. For example, sometimes when you purchase a product, the company offers a rebate on that particular product. That includes receiving money back when the receipt of the purchased product is sent to the company. When you purchase the specific product you are being reinforced to make the actual purchase because of the reward of receiving money back. There are two types of reinforcements, positive and negative.

Positive reinforcers bring pleasant consequences about by adding something pleasant to the environment of the individual. This increases the probability that the response will occur again (Internet:D). For example, to increase customer response you may want to send a trial sample, or a coupon to entice the customer to the store and make the purchase. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is the removal of negative stimuli from the individual's surrounding environment. Negative reinforcement is a way to get rid of undesirable behaviors. Think about when you are listening to the radio and you are trying to hear the ad that is coming in all fuzzy (Internet:A). Well, if you adjust the setting on the radio to eliminate the static, you will be able to hear the advertisement and possibly want to proceed on to buy the product. In this case, you are removing an unpleasant behavior (the static) from the immediate situation to bring about the 'pleasantness' of the advertisement. These two aspects of reinforcement both strengthen the individual's behavior by adding or subtracting necessary praise or barriers.

Aside from the reinforcements, which strengthen or weaken behavior, there is the idea of punishment. Punishment can lead to a decrease or completely elimination a particular behavior (this process of behavioral elimination is also known as extinction.) Extinction is when responses are not reinforced they decrease in frequency, or are even eliminated through the process of ignoring. When punishment occurs our tendency to repeat whatever action or behavior may have been is weakened (Internet:B). For example, imagine that a grade school teacher has asked a student to quietly collect papers from the class. Well, the student collects them, but not quietly. So, in turn, the teacher lets the student know that since she did not collect the papers quietly, she will have to stay twenty-five minutes after school. This punishment of having to stay after school reduces the likelihood that you will disobey the teacher in the future. Research has shown that once behavior is controlled through punishment, the punishment must continue to be used or the behavior will lapse into old patterns (Internet:D). This can be done by using different schedules of punishment, which can also be used for the reinforcements.

There are a few basic and general schedules that can be used for both reinforcements and punishments. The scheduling can be either fixed or variable, but obviously not both at the same time. A fixed schedule is where the reward for the response is given at the same time consistently. Whereas, a variable schedule is just the opposite. A variable schedule is where the reward is distributed at different times. This is done so that a consistent pattern is not developed. Each situation and experiment requires different procedures, so you must make sure that you have done your research to determine the best possible schedule.

EXAMPLES

The first example of operant conditioning is an advertisement for Gucci Rush. This ad is actually a tester for Gucci's new women's fragrance. There are thousands of these types of inserts in magazines, ranging from Cosmopolitan to Teen Magazine. They incorporate all ages, genders, and attitudes. But, this particular Gucci ad is targeted to a more sensual and seductive woman who desires that "rush" in everyday life. The object is to receive the tester of perfume, open the side flap, and rub the fragrance slip on your wrists, neck, and other body parts. If the smell is for you then you have just been subjected to positive reinforcement. One, you liked the smell, and two, the ad caught your attention because of the desire to feel like the "free and sensual" woman in the ad. Therefore, the conditioned response to the ad and the purchasing of the product is positive and has reinforced you to make the purchase.

Another example of operant conditioning can be seen in a final notice for disconnection from a utility company. When you pay the bills on time every month (conditioned response), you then have the privilege of having the gas and electricity kept on (CS). But when you fail to pay a bill on time, a negative letter of disconnection is sent out (punishment). You then learn that if you don't pay on time then the services will be shut down, and I'm sure you don't want that. So, you eliminate the laziness of not paying on time and motivate yourself to actually pay your bills, so that a positive stimulus (gas and electricity working) can be made.

Other examples of operant conditioning can also be found in the previously discussed material pertaining to B.F. Skinner and his Skinner Box invention, along with Edward Thorndike and his Law of Effect.

Conclusions

Operant conditioning can assist the consumer to want to engage in desirable behavior. With the use of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction, the marketing manager can seal the deal with the consumer. This can be done by adding or subtracting the consumers desired or undesired behaviors to entice the consumer to purchase the particular product. The deal with the consumer is final when the consumer purchases the product while also holding the intention that there is a reward and benefit to be had with the purchase.

Relevant Web Sites:

Psychological Foundations of Education, EDCI/PSYC3154:Operant Conditioning
http://www.tandl.vt.edu/doolittle/3154/3154_N_oc.html

Operant Conditioning: How Reinforcement and Punishment Affects Children
http://www.hwi.com/tygger/edpsych/Behavioral/Operant.html

Operant Conditioning
http://www.gettysburg.edu/-arterber/psy101/learn3.html

A Chart Summarizing What Skinner Learned of Operant Conditioning
http://uwf.edu/coehelp/wbi98/wnast/class/nineteen.html

Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning
http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04j.htm

The Skinner Box
http://www.biozentrum.uniwuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/SkinnerBox.html

Operant Conditioning and Behaviorism
http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/behaviorism.html

Test Questions
(answer key at the end)

1. Which reinforcement brings about consequences that are pleasant?
A. Negative
B. Positive
C. Punishment

2. Operant Conditioning is 
A.    Involuntary
B.    Voluntary
C.    Both

3. Which type or reinforcement is used to eliminate a particular behavior?
A. Negative
B. Positive
C. Punishment

4. What is Edward Thorndike best known for?
A. Skinner Box
B. Positive Reinforcement
C. Law of Effect

5. Feelings of increased satisfaction can be considered 
A.    punishment
B.    positive reinforcement
C.    negative reinforcement

Bibliography

1. Catania, Charles A. and Brigham, Thomas A. Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis.(1978). New York, Irvington Publishers, Inc.

2. Dacey, John S. and Travers, John F. Human Growth and Development for Educators. (1999). WIU. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. Epstein, Robert. Skinner for the Classroom. (1982). Illinois. Research Press.

4. Modgil, Sohan and Modgil, Celia. B.F. Skinner: Consensus and Controversy. (1987). New York. Falmer Press.

Answers to Questions

1. B : positive reinforcement

2. B : Operant conditioning is a voluntary behavior.

3. C : punishment

4. C : Law of Effect

5. B : positive  reinforcement